Summary#

Ethical Theories#

Virtue Ethics#

Virtue ethics (also known as aretaic ethics) is an ethical theory that emphasises being a virtuous individual as central to making ethical decisions. This is in contrast to consequentialism, which focuses on the outcome of our actions, and deontology, which considers whether our actions uphold our moral duties.

Key to the theory of virtue ethics are the virtues which one should uphold to achieve eudemonia, and the vices that should be avoided.

Virtues and Vices#

Some of the virtues and vices listed in the lecture are reproduced below:

Virtue Vice
Justice Injustice
Generosity Stingy
Compassion Callousness/cruelty
Courage Cowardice
Temperance No self-control/greed
Gratitude Ingratitude
Honesty Mendacity
Trustworthy Untrustworthy
Love Hate/Indifference
Glad for others' success Envy
Humility Pride
Patience Impatience
... ...

Aristotle’s Doctrine of Golden Mean#

The golden mean is the desirable and moral middle ground between two extremes. On the low extreme, we have the vice of deficiency, and on the high extreme, excess.

Some examples of virtues and vices on this spectrum are:

Vice (Deficiency) Virtue Vice (Excess)
Stingy Generous Extravagant
Mean Benevolent Self-sacrificing
Cowardly Brave Rash
... ... ...

Care Ethics#

Care ethics is a normative ethical theory that proposes that morality is based on caring and benevolent interpersonal relationships. The theory emphasizes the importance of recognising individuality and taking these differences into account when making decisions that impact others.

It criticises the generalised nature of other ethical theories for their failure to appropriately consider individual differences, resulting in moral blindness and indifference.

Carol Gilligan is considered the creator of the theory, which has been further developed by feminist and environmentalist groups since the 1980s.

Developments from Joan Tronto#

In her 1993 book Moral Boundaries, Tronto identifies 4 moral qualities that align with the 4 phases of care. These qualities (taken from her 2013 book Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice) are:

  1. Attentiveness (caring about). In the first phase of care, someone notices unmet caring needs. This calls for the moral quality of attentiveness, of a suspension of one’s self-interest, and a capacity genuinely to look from the perspective of the one in need.

  2. Responsibility (caring for). Once needs are identified, someone or some group has to take on the burden of meeting those needs. This is responsibility, and that is the key moral quality of this second phase.

  3. Competence (care giving). Assuming responsibility is not yet the same as doing the actual work of care; doing such work is the third phase of caring and requires the moral quality of competence.

  4. Responsiveness (care receiving). Once care work is done, there will be a response from the person, group, animal, plant, environment, or thing that has been cared for. Observing that response, and making judgments about it (for example, whether the care given was sufficient, successful, or complete?) requires the moral quality of responsiveness.

Since 1993, Tronto has acknowledged an additional set of qualities (identified by another author, Selma Sevenhuijsen) necessary for effective care. This is again taken from her 2013 book, Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice.

  • Plurality, communication, trust and respect; solidarity (caring with). This involves making care a priority. It emphasises communication, trust, and respect as the qualities that will make it possible for people to take collective responsibility for the caring needs of all members of society.

Tronto acknowledges that this is not a comprehensive list of moral qualities, and agrees that characteristics like hope, gratitude, and cheerfulness (among others) could be part of a more complete list.