Summary

Ethical Theories

In this subject we look at normative ethical theories, which help us answer questions like:

• How should I act?

• What standards of behaviour should I adopt?

• What sort of person should I be?

Normative Ethics

The branch of moral philosophy concerned with the criteria of what is morally right and wrong. (As opposed to meta-ethics or applied ethics).

Utilitarianism

Consequentialism

An ethical theory which holds that the consequences of one’s actions are the basis by which they should be judged. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism.

Teleological

Utilitarianism is teleological since it posits that morality is primarily about attaining a certain goal (the maximisation of utility). Since it is a teleological theory, a utilitarian may believe that “the ends justify the means” of an action that other theories may object to. Deontology opposes this since it considers actions themselves to be right or wrong.

Utilitarianism teleological moral theory that says we ought to measure right and wrong according to an action’s consequences, specifically the action’s effect on overall happiness or wellbeing.

Variants of Utilitarianism

In contemporary philosophy, utilitarianism can be further divided into more specific moral theories which aim to maximise different measures of utility. These include:

• classical utilitarianism (uses overall happiness or pleasure as the measure of utility)

• preference utilitarianism (which values actions that fulfil the most preferences or personal interests rather than maximising pleasure)

Distinctions are also made between:

• act utilitarianism (covered in the lecture - which considers the results consequences of each single act individually, as opposed to…)

• rule utilitarianism (which considers the consequences of following that action as a rule of conduct.)

Some of this content is outside the scope of this course, but if you’re interested to learn more (perhaps to write stronger essays) you might find it interesting to research topics like these.

Deontology

Deontology is a non-teleological ethical theory that considers actions themselves to be good or bad based on a set of rules, rather than based on the consequences of the actions. Different formulations of deontological ethics consider different rules to be moral obligations.

W. D. Ross

Proposes that there exist prima facie duties that determine what is right and which should be taken at face value.

These include:

1. Fidelity. Keep promises and be honest and truthful.

2. Reparation. Make amends when we have wronged someone.

3. Gratitude. Be grateful when others benefit us and try to return favour.

4. Non-injury (or non-maleficence). Refrain from harming others physically or psychologically.

5. Beneficence. Be kind and try to improve others’ health, wisdom, security, happiness, and well-being.

6. Self-improvement. Strive to improve our own health, wisdom, security, happiness, and well-being.

7. Justice. Be fair and distribute benefits and burdens equably and evenly

When these rules conflict, judgement is required to resolve the conflicts. One rule may be determined to override another.

Kantian Deontology

Maxim

A moral rule or principle.

Categorical Imperative

The central philosophical concept to Kantian deontology, which states that one should “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.”

Posits that actions are justified if they align with the categorical imperative:

• are based only on maxims that one would will to become a universal law,

• never treat humans (or other autonomous beings) as simply a means to an end.

  • we should not use people to achieve our own goals without considering their goals and humanity.

  • we should consider that all beings have inherent worth, including ourselves.

Other Ethical Theories and Definitions

Religious Ethics

Encompasses the wide range of religious origins that are proposed as the source of moral authority.

Nihilism

In short, the rejection of all religious and moral principles, in the belief that life is meaningless.

Egoism

An ethical theory that treats self-interest as the foundation of morality.